Political parties of the Empire of Japan 🦚

"appeared in Japan after the Meiji Restoration, and gradually increased in importance after the promulgation of the Meiji Constitution and the creation of the Diet of Japan. During the Taishō period, parliamentary democracy based on party politics temporarily succeeded in Japan, but in the 1930s the political parties were eclipsed by the military, and were dissolved in the 1940s during World War II. Early movements Soon after the Meiji Restoration, various political associations arose. These included groups of disgruntled unemployed samurai seeking either to overthrow the government and return to the days of feudalism, or to invade Korea (see Seikanron), whereby their skills as warriors would be in demand again, These also included urban intellectuals and rural landowners who were part of the liberal Freedom and People's Rights Movement seeking a national assembly and written national constitution. Both groups were viewed with equal suspicion and disdain by the Meiji oligarchy, who reacted by imposing several repressive laws on public assembly, the press and on political discussion. The Meiji government had come to power by an elite of samurai from certain clans (hanbatsu) and the genrō felt threatened by anything looking ever remotely like republicanism or democracy. During this period, Itagaki Taisuke and Ōkuma Shigenobu were leading figures in the legitimization of political parties. Itagaki created Japan's first political party, the Aikoku Kōtō, in 1873 in Tokyo to petition for an elected assembly, and a similar regional party based in Osaka, the Aikokusha. These groups were the basis of the Jiyutō (Liberal Party), founded in 1881 as Japan’s first nationally based party. Ōkuma founded the Rikken Kaishintō in 1882, mainly from the urban elites. In reaction, the oligarchs fought back by the creation of their own party the same year, the Rikken Teiseitō. Meanwhile, the disgruntled former samurai vented their dissatisfaction at the state of affairs in a series of revolts, including the Saga Rebellion of 1872, and others, cumulating in the Satsuma Rebellion. After crushing these revolts by military force, the government also passed the Peace Preservation Law of 1887. The Meiji Constitution was issued two years later in 1889. Domination by the oligarchs The creation of the Diet of Japan in November 1890 was marked by intense rivalry between the genrō, who reserved the right to appoint the Prime Minister and the members of the cabinets regardless of what the elected government wanted, and the political parties who were powerless because of their inability to unite and thus control the House of Representatives. The Rikken Kaishintō gradually lost support, and was overtaken by the pro-oligarch until it was reformed as the Shimpotō in 1896. None of the political parties, whether pro- or anti-oligarch, had any power in the House of Peers, nor did they have significant power in the countryside, as key local officials were appointed directly by the bureaucracy in Tokyo. Emergence of party government The Jiyutō and the Shimpotō united in 1898 against Prime Minister Itō Hirobumi's proposed new taxation plans, and formed the Kenseitō, which emerged with a majority of seats in Diet in the subsequent election. Itō resigned, and was replaced by Ōkuma Shigenobu, making the first time that a political party had assumed power. Although the Ōkuma government collapsed within months, a precedent had been set. The Kenseitō evolved into the Kenseitō Hontō, followed by the Rikken Kokumintō in 1910. Itō Hirobumi joined into the fray, by organizing the Rikken Seiyukai in 1900 to combine elements from the former Jiyutō with elements from the oligarchs and bureaucrats. The more conservative elements rallied around Katsura Taro, and his Rikken Doshikai, which was reconstituted as the Kenseikai in 1916. From 1922 onwards, politics was a rivalry between the Seiyukai and the Kenseikai, rather than political parties and oligarchs. During this period, a bewildering array of parties advocating socialism, Marxism or agrarianism appeared. All provoked hostility from the mainstream political parties, oligarchs and military alike, and many were either banned or went underground soon after formation. Following the successful Bolshevik Revolution in Russia and the emergence of labor unions in Japan, the Nihon Shakai Shugi Domei (1920), Japan Communist Party (1922), and other left-wing parties emerged. Ascendancy of the military The main threat to representative democracy in Japan proved to be the Japanese military, rather than the left-wing parties. Under the Meiji Constitution, the Minister of the Army (who served as Minister of War) and Minister of the Navy were appointed by their respective services, and not by the Prime Minister. The military was also directly answerable only to the Emperor, and not to the elected government. In 1912, a law restricting the eligibility to Minister of the Army or Navy to active duty generals or admirals had the unforeseen effect of giving the military a trump card over the government when Prime Minister Uehara Yusaku resigned over failure of the Diet to pass his budget requesting funds for two additional army divisions. The Army's refusal to appoint a successor brought down the government. Taishō democracy The military did not immediately utilize its prerogative to control the formation of the Cabinet, so in the Taishō period, several administrations from 1918–1922 and 1924-1932 operated largely free from military intervention. In 1927, the Kenseikai reorganized itself as the Rikken Minseitō, which from 1927 to 1932 alternated power with the Seiyukai. Prime Ministers continued to be chosen by genrō Saionji Kinmochi (Itō Hirobumi’s protégé), but his choices during his period reflected political party strength in the Diet. These included the premiership of Hara Takashi, Takahashi Korekiyo, Kiyoura Keigo, Katō Takaaki, Wakatsuki Reijirō, Tanaka Giichi, Hamaguchi Osachi, and Inukai Tsuyoshi. Shōwa military rule The number of voters increased fourfold after the passage of universal male suffrage in 1925, and with the increase in expenses required for election, the influence of the zaibatsu on the political parties also increased. At the beginning of the Shōwa era, this collusion between politicians and government officials, led to an increase in high-profile corruption scandals and increasing dissatisfaction with the elected government by the public in general and by the military in particular. Some military used this dissatisfaction to denounce the London Naval Treaty and promote a Shōwa Restoration. The assassination of Prime Minister Inukai Tsuyoshi in the May 15 Incident (1932) at the hands of young Navy radicals proclaiming the need for political reform, started the rapid decline in the power and influence of the political party in Japan. After the assassination of Inukai, every subsequent Prime Minister was either from the military, or was someone with militaristic and/or ultranationalistic credentials. As the military influence on society increased towards the end of the 1930s, the Imperial General Headquarters launched a large scale invasion of China. Pressure then mounted from the military leadership for the remaining political parties to merge into a single organization, thus giving the government a single voice, referred to as Hakkō ichiu ("eight crown cords, one roof"). This change to a one-party state was effected in 1940 under Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoe, when all remaining political parties joined the Imperial Rule Assistance Association. Timeline *1874: Aikoku Kōtō (Public Society of Patriots) founded *1881: Aikoku Kōtō and Aikokusha are continued by the Jiyutō (Liberal Party of Japan) *1882: Rikken Kaishintō (Constitutional Progressive Party) founded by Okuma Shigenobu *1882: Rikken Teiseitō founded by conservatives *1887: Peace Preservation Law *1889: Meiji Constitution *1890: Opening of the Diet of Japan *1890: Rikken Jiyutō established *1891: Rikken Jiyutō renamed Jiyutō *1896: Rikken Kaishintō is continued by the 'Shimpotō (Progressive Party) *1898: Rikken Jiyutō and Shimpotō merge to form the Kenseitō (Constitutional Politics Party ) *1900: Kenseitō is taken over by the oligarchy and renamed the Constitutional Friends Association (Rikken Seiyukai) *1900: Public Order & Police Law of 1900 *1910: A faction of the former Kenseitō forms the Rikken Kokumintō (Constitutional National Party ) *1912: Start of the Taishō period *1913: A faction of the Rikken Kokumintō forms the Rikken Dōshikai (Constitutional Friendship Association) *1916: Rikken Dōshikai becomes the Kenseikai (Constitutional Association) *1920: Foundation of the Nihon Shakai Shugi Domei *1922: Foundation of the Japan Communist Party *1925: Peace Preservation Law of 1925 *1926: Foundation of the Nihon Rōnōtō (Japan Labor- Farmer Party), Rōdō Nōmintō (Labor-Farmer Party), and the Shakai Minshutō (Socialist People's Party) *1928 March 15 Incident *1929: April 16 Incident *1922: Rikken Kokumintō merges into Kakushin Club (Reform Club), which later merges with the Rikken Seiyutō. *1925: Passage of universal male suffrage laws *1926: Start of the Shōwa period *1927: Rikken Minseitō formed from the Kenseikai *1930: Prime Minister Hamaguchi assassinated *1931: March Incident and Imperial Colors Incident *1932: May 15 Incident; Prime Minister Inukai assassinated *1933: proto-fascist Kokumin Dōmei formed *1936: February 26 Incident: Prime Minister Okada Keisuke escapes assassination *1936: Fascist Tōhōkai formed *1937: Popular Front Incident *1940: Imperial Rule Assistance Association formed Alphabetical listing of pre-war political parties This is a partial listing of political parties in pre–World War II Empire of Japan *Aikoku Kōtō, 1874-1874 founded by Itagaki Taisuke *Aikokusha, 1875 & 1878-1891, founded by Itagaki Taisuke *Jiyutō Party: organized by Itagaki Taisuke & Goto Shojiro *Kenseikai 1916-1925, founded by Kato Takaaki *Kenseitō 1889-1910, founded by Ōkuma Shigenobu & Itagaki Taisuke *Kokumin Dōmei: 1932-1940, founded by Nakano Seigō *Japan Communist Party (1922–1925; to 1935 underground) by Yamakawa Hitoshi & Fukumoto Kazuo *Nihon Musantō:1937-1937, founded by Suzuki Musaburō *Nihon Ronōtō:1926-1928 *Rikken Dōshikai: 1913-1916, founded by Katsura Tarō *Rikken Minseitō: 1927-1940, founded by Hamaguchi Osachi *Rikken Kaishintō: 1882-1896, founded by Ōkuma Shigenobu *Rikken Seiyukai: 1900-1940, founded by Itō Hirobumi *Rikken Teisetō: 1882-1883, founded by Fukuichi Gen'ichirō *Rōdō Nōmintō:1926-1928 *Shakai Minshutō:1926-1932, founded by Abe Isoo *Shakai Taishutō: 1932-1940, founded by Abe Isoo *Shimpotō: 1886-1889, founded by Ōkuma Shigenobu *Tōhōkai: 1936-1940, founded by Nakano Seigō Note that this list does not include the ultranationalist organizations, which (although they had a political agenda) did not participate directly in the electoral process by running their own candidates for public office. Likewise, this list does not include the political factions within the Japanese military, which also were not true political parties. References * * Category:Politics of the Empire of Japan Category:Empire of Japan "

Carte Bleue 🦚

"right Carte Bleue () was a major debit card payment system operating in France. Unlike Visa Electron or Maestro debit cards, Carte Bleue allowed transactions without requiring authorization from the cardholder's bank. In many situations, the card worked like a credit card but without fees for the cardholder. The system has now been integrated into a wider scheme called CB or carte bancaire ("banking card"). All Carte Bleue cards were part of CB, but not all CB cards were Carte Bleue. The system was national, and pure Carte Bleue cards did not operate outside France. However, it is possible and commonplace to get a CB Visa card that operates outside France. Carte Bleue was, technically speaking, the local Visa affiliate. Carte Bleue started in 1967, associating six French banks: BNP, CCF, Crédit du Nord, CIC, Crédit Lyonnais, and Société Générale. Combined Visa cards have existed since 1973 under the name Carte Bleue Internationale, changing to Carte Bleue Visa in 1976. From 1992 on, all Cartes Bleues / CB have been smart cards. When using a Carte Bleue at a French merchant, the PIN of the card must be used, and a microchip on the card verifies and authenticates the transaction. Only some very limited transactions, such as motorway tolls or parking fees, are paid without PIN. Since automatic teller machines also check for the PIN, this measure strongly reduces the incentive to steal Cartes Bleues, since the cards are essentially useless without the PIN (though one may try using the card number for mail-order or e-retailing). Foreign cards without microchips can still be used at French merchants if they accept them, with the usual procedure of swiping the magnetic stripe and signing the receipt. In 2000, Serge Humpich, after failing to convince the makers of a serious flaw he had found two years before, purchased some metro tickets to prove it. He sent the proof to Groupement des Cartes Bancaires. They then initiated criminal action against him, and he was convicted and sentenced to a ten months suspended jail sentence.Ingrand, Cedric (2000-02-26), "French credit card hacker convicted", The Register. https://www.theregister.co.uk/2000/02/26/french_credit_card_hacker_convicted/Jessel, Stephen (2000-02-25), "Credit card whistleblower sentenced", BBC. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/657135.stmWebster, Paul (2000-01-22), "Banks fail to give credit to fake smart card 'genius'",The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2000/jan/22/paulwebster In 2003, the Cartes Bleues / CB started to move on to the international standard EMV for smart chips, allowing for their use abroad. In 2010, the Carte Bleue brand was phased out in favour of Visa; however, the term carte bleue continues to be used as a generic term for EFT-based payment cards, including debit and credit cards. See also *Groupement des Cartes Bancaires CB *ATM usage fees References External links * Official site of Carte Bleue * Official site of CB Category:Financial services companies established in 1967 Category:Smart cards Category:Debit cards Category:Debit card issuer associations Category:Credit card issuer associations "

Frank Perkins (engineer) 🦚

"Francis Arthur "Frank" Perkins (20 February 1889 – 15 October 1967) was a British engineer, businessman, creator of the Perkins Diesel Engine, and founder of Perkins Engines. Background and early life Perkins was born in Peterborough, the son of John Edward Sharman Perkins, a manufacturer of agricultural machinery, and his wife Margaret Charlotte Long. His brother Christopher Perkins became a noted artist, and both boys were educated at Gresham's School, Holt, Norfolk. Frank attended Rugby School (1902–1904), Gresham's (1904–1907), and Emmanuel College, Cambridge, (1907–1910) gaining a pass degree in mechanical engineering in 1910. War service At the beginning of the First World War, Perkins quickly volunteered, and was commissioned into the Royal Engineers, serving in its 34th divisional company in the Dardanelles, Palestine, and Egypt. He was demobilized in 1918 with the rank of major. Career He was a third generation engineer, following both his grandfather and father, who both worked for Barford & Perkins, a family firm that manufactured road construction rollers/compactors, agricultural rollers, and other agricultural machinery. However, before joining the family firm at its Queen Street ironworks in Peterborough, he worked for Lawes Chemicals Ltd. While later working at Aveling & Porter in Rochester, Kent, Perkins started working on a high-speed, light-weight, diesel engine with Charles Chapman. Before they could complete the project, Aveling & Porter went bankrupt. Convinced that the scheme would be profitable in serving the agricultural tractor market, the two formed their own company, F. Perkins Limited, on 7 June 1932, initially with four employees and based in a rented workshop. Chapman was the technical director and Perkins the chairman. Perkins would go on building new engines and building the company until 1959, when at the age of seventy he sold a majority stake to his largest customer, Massey Ferguson. He was president of the Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders (1956–57) and Sheriff of Cambridgeshire and Huntingdonshire (1956–57). He died at his home, Alwalton Hall, near Peterborough, in 1967. Family In 1915, while on leave from the Royal Engineers, Perkins married Susan Gwynneth Gee, the daughter of Hugh Roberts Williams. They had one son and three daughters. Sources and further reading See also *Perkins Engines *List of Perkins engines References *Perkins, Francis Arthur [Frank] (1889–1967), diesel engine manufacturer by Anne Pimlott Baker in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography External links *Perkins Engines Company * History of Perkins Engines Category:1889 births Category:1967 deaths Category:People educated at Gresham's School Category:Alumni of Emmanuel College, Cambridge Category:British automotive engineers Category:People from Peterborough Category:British automotive pioneers Category:Perkins engines Category:Royal Engineers officers Category:British Army personnel of World War I "